In vitro study of antimicrobial activity of some plant seeds against bacterial strains causing food poisoning diseases / Estudo in vitro da atividade antimicrobiana de algumas sementes de plantas contra cepas bacterianas que causam doenças de intoxicação alimentar

In this research, some plant seeds powder was evaluated to find their potential effect to rule diseases of food poisoning. Antimicrobial effect of five plant seeds was examined contra Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella. pneumonia and Candida albicans by using well diffusion method. Antimicrobial activity studies revealed high potential activity of plant seeds powder of Nigella sativa L., cucurbita pepo, Sesamum radiatum, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Linum usitatissimum with variable efficiency contra tested microbial strains with concentration of 100 mg/ml, except Sesamum radiatum scored no effect. The T. foenum and N. sativa seed powder showed the largest inhibition zone (24-20 mm) contra K. pneumonia, followed by S. aureus (20-18 mm) and C. albicans (15mm) respectively. The five plant seeds powder exhibited bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects with MIC's 20 and MBC 40 mg/ml against K. pneumonia, and MIC's 40 and MBC 60 mg/ml against S. aureus. The results of this study indicated that plants seeds powder have promising antimicrobial activities and their potential applications in food process. It could be utilized as a natural medicinal alternative instead of chemical substance.

Nesta pesquisa, o pó de sementes de plantas foi avaliado para encontrar seu efeito potencial no controle de doenças de intoxicação alimentar. O efeito antimicrobiano de cinco sementes de plantas foi examinado contra Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia e Candida albicans usando o método de difusão bem. Estudos de atividade antimicrobiana revelaram alto potencial de atividade de sementes de plantas em pó de Nigella sativa L., Cucurbita pepo, Sesamum radiatum, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Linum usitatissimum com eficiência variável contra cepas microbianas testadas com concentração de 100 mg / ml, exceto Sesamum radiatum com pontuação não efeito. O pó de sementes de T. foenum e N. sativa apresentou a maior zona de inibição (24-20 mm) contra K. pneumonia, seguido por S. aureus (20-18 mm) e C. albicans (15 mm), respectivamente. O pó de cinco sementes de plantas exibiu efeitos bacteriostáticos e bactericidas com MIC's 20 e MBC 40 mg / ml contra K. pneumonia, enquanto MIC's 40 e MBC 60 mg / ml contra S. aureus. Os resultados deste estudo indicaram que os pós de sementes de plantas apresentam promissoras atividades antimicrobianas e suas potenciais aplicações em processos alimentícios. Ele poderia ser utilizado como alternativa medicinal natural em vez de substância química.

Bacteriophages as an Alternative Method for Control of Zoonotic and Foodborne Pathogens.

The global increase in multidrug-resistant infections caused by various pathogens has raised concerns in human and veterinary medicine. This has renewed interest in the development of alternative methods to antibiotics, including the use of bacteriophages for controlling bacterial infections. The aim of this review is to present potential uses of bacteriophages as an alternative to antibiotics in the control of bacterial infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria posing a risk to humans, with particular emphasis on foodborne and zoonotic pathogens. A varied therapeutic and immunomodulatory (activation or suppression) effect of bacteriophages on humoral and cellular immune response mechanisms has been demonstrated. The antibiotic resistance crisis caused by global antimicrobial resistance among bacteria creates a compelling need for alternative safe and selectively effective antibacterial agents. Bacteriophages have many properties indicating their potential suitability as therapeutic and/or prophylactic agents. In many cases, bacteriophages can also be used in food quality control against microorganisms such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Listeria, Campylobacter and others. Future research will provide potential alternative solutions using bacteriophages to treat infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Human Coronaviruses Do Not Transfer Efficiently between Surfaces in the Absence of Organic Materials.

Human coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2, are known to spread mainly via close contact and respiratory droplets. However, other potential means of transmission may be present. Fomite-mediated transmission occurs when viruses are deposited onto a surface and then transfer to a subsequent individual. Surfaces can become contaminated directly from respiratory droplets or from a contaminated hand. Due to mask mandates in many countries around the world, the former is less likely. Hands can become contaminated if respiratory droplets are deposited on them (i.e., coughing or sneezing) or through contact with fecal material where human coronaviruses (HCoVs) can be shed. The focus of this paper is on whether human coronaviruses can transfer efficiently from contaminated hands to food or food contact surfaces. The surfaces chosen were: stainless steel, plastic, cucumber and apple. Transfer was first tested with cellular maintenance media and three viruses: two human coronaviruses, 229E and OC43, and murine norovirus-1, as a surrogate for human norovirus. There was no transfer for either of the human coronaviruses to any of the surfaces. Murine norovirus-1 did transfer to stainless steel, cucumber and apple, with transfer efficiencies of 9.19%, 5.95% and 0.329%, respectively. Human coronavirus OC43 transfer was then tested in the presence of fecal material, and transfer was observed for stainless steel (0.52%), cucumber (19.82%) and apple (15.51%) but not plastic. This study indicates that human coronaviruses do not transfer effectively from contaminated hands to contact surfaces without the presence of fecal material.

Predominance of Human Bocavirus Genotypes 1 and 2 in Oysters in Thailand.

Human bocavirus (HBoV) has been recognized as an important pathogen that causes respiratory infection and acute gastroenteritis in young children worldwide. HBoV is most likely transmitted by the respiratory route and by fecal-oral transmission. Recently, HBoV has been detected in several types of environmental water and in bivalve shellfish. However, study of the existence of HBoV in oysters is still undocumented in Thailand. In this study, 144 oyster samples collected from different markets in Chiang Mai, Thailand, in 2017 and 2018 were investigated for the presence of HBoV by nested PCR and sequencing. HBoV was detected in 11 out of 144 samples (7.6%). Nine HBoV-positive samples (81.8%) were identified as genotype 1 (HBoV1) and two (18.2%) as HBoV2. A monthly investigation of HBoV in oyster samples from July 2017 to June 2018 showed that HBoV was sporadically detected in particular months spanning the rainy and colder season, with a peak in January. This study demonstrates the presence and genotype diversity of HBoV in oyster samples in Thailand. The findings contribute to evaluating the risk of foodborne transmission of HBoV and to monitoring outbreaks of HBoV in Thailand and in other countries. IMPORTANCE Human bocavirus is recognized as an important cause of respiratory infection and of acute gastroenteritis in children worldwide. Human bocavirus has been widely detected in many clinical specimens, as well as in several types of environmental samples. Most previous studies describe the incidence of bocavirus infection in humans, whereas few data are available for the occurrence of human bocavirus in food materials, particularly that in bivalve shellfish. Our findings provide evidence for the existence and prevalence of human bocavirus in oysters, suggesting that further monitoring of the potential risk of food- and waterborne transmission of this virus to humans should be undertaken.

Measuring transfer of human norovirus during sandwich production: Simulating the role of food, food handlers and the environment.

Foodborne outbreaks associated with transmission of norovirus are increasingly becoming a public health concern. Foods can be contaminated with faecal material at the point of production or during food preparation, in both the home and in commercial premises. Transmission of norovirus occurs through the faecal-oral route, either via person-to-person contact or through faecal-contamination of food, water, or environmental surfaces. Understanding the role and pathways of norovirus transmission - either via food handlers' hands, contaminated foods or the environment - remains a key public health priority to reduce the burden of norovirus-associated gastroenteritis. However the proportion of norovirus that is typically transferred remains unknown. Understanding this is necessary to estimate the risk of infection and the burden of gastroenteritis caused by norovirus. In this paper we present a novel method of capture, concentration and molecular detection of norovirus from a wider range of complex food matrices than those demonstrated in existing published methods. We demonstrate that this method can be used as a tool to detect and quantify norovirus from naturally contaminated food, and for monitoring norovirus transfer between food handlers' gloved hands, food or the environment. We measure the effect of introducing contamination at different food production process stages, to the final food product, to determine whether this could cause infection and disease. Between 5.9 and 6.3 Log10 cDNA copies/µl of norovirus GII were inoculated onto food handlers' gloved hands, food or the environment and 1.1-7.4% of norovirus contamination was recovered from all samples tested. When interpreted quantitatively, this percentage equates to levels predicted to be sufficient to cause infection and disease through consumption of the final food product, demonstrating a public health risk. Overall detection and quantification of norovirus from foods, food handlers' gloved hands and the environment, when suspected to be implicated in foodborne transmissions, is paramount for appropriate outbreak investigation.

The Foodborne Transmission of Hepatitis E Virus to Humans.

Globally, Hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes over 20 million cases worldwide. HEV is an emerging and endemic pathogen within economically developed countries, chiefly resulting from infections with genotype 3 (G3) HEV. G3 HEV is known to be a zoonotic pathogen, with a broad host range. The primary source of HEV within more economically developed countries is considered to be pigs, and consumption of pork products is a significant risk factor and known transmission route for the virus to humans. However, other foods have also been implicated in the transmission of HEV to humans. This review consolidates the information available regarding transmission of HEV and looks to identify gaps where further research is required to better understand how HEV is transmitted to humans through food.

Library Preparation Based on Transposase Assisted RNA/DNA Hybrid Co-Tagmentation for Next-Generation Sequencing of Human Noroviruses.

Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) are one of the leading causes of foodborne illnesses globally. The viral genome is the most essential information for viral source tracing and viral transmission pattern monitoring. However, whole genome sequencing of HuNoVs is still challenging due to the sequence heterogeneity among different genotypes and low titer in samples. To address this need, in this study, the Transposase assisted RNA/DNA hybrid Co-tagmentation (TRACE-seq) method was established for next generation sequencing library preparation of HuNoVs. Our data demonstrated that almost the whole HuNoVs genome (>7 kb) could be obtained from all of the 11 clinical samples tested. Twelve genotypes including GI.3, GI.4, GI.5, GI.8, GII.2, GII.3, GII.4, GII.6, GII.12, GII.13, GII.14, and GII.21 were involved. Compared with the traditional method for viral metagenomics library preparation, optimized TRACE-seq greatly reduced the interference from the host's and bacterial RNAs. In addition, viral genome sequences can be assembled by using less raw data with sufficient depth along the whole genome. Therefore, for the high versatility and reliability, this method is promising for whole viral genome attainment. It is particularly applicable for the viruses with a low titer that are mixed with a complicated host background and are unable to be cultured in vitro, like the HuNoVs utilized in this study.

Survival and Inactivation by Advanced Oxidative Process of Foodborne Viruses in Model Low-Moisture Foods.

Enteric viruses, such as human norovirus (NoV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV), are the major causes of foodborne illnesses worldwide. These viruses have low infectious dose, and may remain infectious for weeks in the environment and food. Limited information is available regarding viral survival and transmission in low-moisture foods (LMF). LMFs are generally considered as ready-to-eat products, which undergo no or minimal pathogen reduction steps. However, numerous foodborne viral outbreaks associated with LMFs have been reported in recent years. The objective of this study was to examine the survival of foodborne viruses in LMFs during 4-week storage at ambient temperature and to evaluate the efficacy of advanced oxidative process (AOP) treatment in the inactivation of these viruses. For this purpose, select LMFs such as pistachios, chocolate, and cereal were inoculated with HAV and the norovirus surrogates, murine norovirus (MNV) and feline calicivirus (FCV), then viral survival on these food matrices was measured over a four-week incubation at ambient temperature, by both plaque assay and droplet-digital RT-PCR (ddRT-PCR) using the modified ISO-15216 method as well as the magnetic bead assay for viral recovery. We observed an approximately 0.5 log reduction in viral genome copies, and 1 log reduction in viral infectivity for all three tested viruses following storage of select inoculated LMFs for 4 weeks. Therefore, the present study shows that the examined foodborne viruses can persist for a long time in LMFs. Next, we examined the inactivation efficacy of AOP treatment, which combines UV-C, ozone, and hydrogen peroxide vapor, and observed that while approximately 100% (4 log) inactivation can be achieved for FCV, and MNV in chocolate, the inactivation efficiency diminishes to approximately 90% (1 log) in pistachios and 70% (< 1 log) in cereal. AOP treatment could therefore be a good candidate for risk reduction of foodborne viruses from certain LMFs depending on the food matrix and surface of treatment.

Exploring the potential of foodborne transmission of respiratory viruses.

The ongoing pandemic involving severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has raised the question whether this virus, which is known to be spread primarily though respiratory droplets, could be spread through the fecal-oral route or via contaminated food. In this article, we present a critical review of the literature exploring the potential foodborne transmission of several respiratory viruses including human coronaviruses, avian influenza virus (AVI), parainfluenza viruses, human respiratory syncytial virus, adenoviruses, rhinoviruses, and Nipah virus. Multiple lines of evidence, including documented expression of receptor proteins on gastrointestinal epithelial cells, in vivo viral replication in gastrointestinal epithelial cell lines, extended fecal shedding of respiratory viruses, and the ability to remain infectious in food environments for extended periods of time raises the theoretical ability of some human respiratory viruses, particularly human coronaviruses and AVI, to spread via food. However, to date, neither epidemiological data nor case reports of clear foodborne transmission of either viruses exist. Thus, foodborne transmission of human respiratory viruses remains only a theoretical possibility.

Magnolia officinalis and Its Honokiol and Magnolol Constituents Inhibit Human Norovirus Surrogates.

Norovirus is a major cause of foodborne disease and nonbacterial gastroenteritis globally. This study evaluated the antiviral effects of Magnolia officinalis extract and its honokiol and magnolol constituents against human norovirus surrogates, murine norovirus (MNV) and feline calicivirus (FCV) in vitro, and in model food systems. Pretreatment or cotreatment of M. officinalis extract at 1 mg/mL reduced MNV and FCV titers by 0.6-1.8 log. Honokiol and magnolol, which are the major polyphenols in the extract, showed significant antiviral effects against MNV and FCV. The virus-infected cells that were treated with M. officinalis extract exhibited significantly increased glutathione levels (p < 0.05). The extract, honokiol, and magnolol revealed ferric ion-reducing and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activities in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, MNV and FCV titers were reduced by >1.6 log or to undetectable levels in apple, orange, and plum juices and by 0.9 and 1.6 log in milk, respectively, when they were treated with the extract at 5 mg/mL. Therefore, the present study suggests that M. officinalis extract can be used as an antiviral food material to control norovirus foodborne diseases.

Phage therapy as a potential approach in the biocontrol of pathogenic bacteria associated with shellfish consumption.

Infectious human diseases acquired from bivalve shellfish consumption constitute a public health threat. These health threats are largely related to the filter-feeding phenomenon, by which bivalve organisms retain and concentrate pathogenic bacteria from their surrounding waters. Even after depuration, bivalve shellfish are still involved in outbreaks caused by pathogenic bacteria, which increases the demand for new and efficient strategies to control transmission of shellfish infection. Bacteriophage (or phage) therapy represents a promising, tailor-made approach to control human pathogens in bivalves, but its success depends on a deep understanding of several factors that include the bacterial communities present in the harvesting waters, the appropriate selection of phage particles, the multiplicity of infection that produces the best bacterial inactivation, chemical and physical factors, the emergence of phage-resistant bacterial mutants and the life cycle of bivalves. This review discusses the need to advance phage therapy research for bivalve decontamination, highlighting their efficiency as an antimicrobial strategy and identifying critical aspects to successfully apply this therapy to control human pathogens associated with bivalve consumption.

Inactivation of hepatitis A virus and murine norovirus on surfaces of plastic, steel and raspberries using steam-ultrasound treatment.

The leading causes of foodborne viral disease outbreaks are human norovirus and hepatitis A virus (HAV). Their environmental persistence enables contamination of kitchen surfaces and crops often consumed raw, such as berries. Many decontamination procedures are inefficient and unsuitable for surfaces of industrial kitchen environments and soft fruits. In this study, we investigated the efficiency of a novel surface decontamination technology, combining steam and ultrasound (steam-ultrasound). Plastic, steel or raspberry surfaces were spiked with the norovirus surrogate, murine norovirus (MNV), and HAV, and steam-ultrasound treated at 85, 90 and 95 °C for 0-5 s. Post treatment viruses were titrated for survival by plaque assay and for genome stability by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) of nucleic acid extracts. Survival of viruses were estimated in a log-linear model and the treatment time requirements for each decimal reduction (D value) in viral survival were calculated. The estimated D values of MNV or HAV were 0.4-0.2 or 1.1-0.8 s on plastic, 0.9-0.7 or 1.4-0.8 s on steel and 1.6-1.7 or 3.2-4.7 s on raspberries. No clear trend of genome reduction was observed with tested treatment parameters. Raspberries treated up to 4 s retained its natural texture and visual appeal similar to untreated controls whilst monitored for 7 days. In conclusion, steam-ultrasound treatment can within seconds reduce the titre of foodborne viruses on surfaces of plastic, steel and raspberries. This may particularly benefit industrial scale production of soft fruits for raw consumption and for swift non-hazardous decontamination of industrial kitchen surfaces.

Resurgence of an international hepatitis A outbreak linked to imported frozen strawberries, Germany, 2018 to 2020.

Following outbreaks linked to frozen strawberries in Sweden and Austria in 2018, 65 cases linked to the same hepatitis A virus strain were detected in Germany between October 2018 and January 2020, presenting in two waves. Two case-control studies and a comparison of cases' consumption frequencies with purchase data from a large consumer panel provided strong evidence for frozen strawberry cake as the main vehicle of transmission. Of 46 cases interviewed, 27 reported consuming frozen strawberry cake and 25 of these identified cake(s) from brand A spontaneously or in product picture-assisted recall. Trace back investigations revealed that the Polish producer involved in the previous outbreaks in Sweden and Austria had received frozen strawberries from Egypt via a wholesaler that also delivered frozen strawberries to manufacturer of brand A. Phylogenetic analyses linked the outbreak strain to similar strains formerly isolated from sewage, stool and strawberries in Egypt. Complete trace back and timely recall of products with strong evidence of contamination is important to control an outbreak and prevent later resurgence, particularly for food items with a long shelf life. Continued molecular surveillance of hepatitis A is needed to identify outbreaks and monitor the success of food safety interventions.

Green tea extract assisted low-temperature pasteurization to inactivate enteric viruses in juices.

The current popularity of minimally processed foods is an opportunity for natural antimicrobial agents to be combined with mild heat treatments to act synergistically in reducing viral foodborne pathogens. Viral inactivation by heat-treatments (at 25, 40, 50 and 63 °C for 30 min) combined with aged green tea extract (aged-GTE) was initially evaluated in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) against murine norovirus (MNV-1) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) by cell culture, and against human norovirus by in situ capture RT-qPCR. The combination of aged-GTE and heat treatment at 50 °C for 30 min exerted strong antiviral activity, reducing by more than 5 log MNV-1 infectivity in PBS. Heating at 40 °C for 30 min reduced the binding of norovirus to porcine gastric mucine (PGM) to 41.5% and the addition of aged-GTE further decreased the binding to 4.7%. Additionally, the reduction of MNV-1 and HAV infectivity was investigated in two different types of juices exposed to mild heat treatments alone, and combined with aged-GTE. The addition of aged-GTE increased to more than 4 log the inactivation of MNV-1 in juices exposed to 50 °C for 30 min. However, this synergistic effect of aged-GTE combined with heat treatments was not observed for HAV in any of the juices. Aged-GTE, then, could be considered as an additional control measure to improve the food safety of mild heat pasteurized juices.

An Optimised Direct Lysis Method for Viral RNA Extraction and Detection of Foodborne Viruses on Fruits and Vegetables.

Detection of norovirus (NoV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) on fruits and vegetables using current standard methodologies can be inefficient. Method optimisation focussing on ease, rapidity and increased viral RNA recovery is needed for efficient reverse transcription (RT)-qPCR detection of viruses. A simple and quick direct lysis method for RNA extraction was optimised (method A) to achieve increased viral RNA recovery and minimised RT-qPCR inhibition by increasing the volume of lysis buffer and inclusion of pectinase, Plant RNA Isolation Aid and OneStep PCR Inhibitor Removal Kit. Method A and an internal method structurally comparable to the ISO 15216 standard (method B) were compared for their efficiencies to recover viral RNA from the process controls, mengovirus (MC0) and murine norovirus (MNV), spiked in 13 types of fruits, vegetables, compound foods or seeds/nuts. All extracts (> 61) were also analysed for RT-qPCR inhibition and for natural contamination of NoV and HAV. The overall mean extraction efficiencies of MC0 and MNV were 36 ± 31 and 44 ± 38%, respectively, for method A and 9 ± 16 and 5 ± 11%, respectively, for method B. Inhibition of RT-qPCR amplification of RNA from NoV genogroup (G)I, NoV GII, and HAV ranged from 5 ± 10 to 13 ± 14% for method A and 34 ± 36 to 48 ± 40% for method B. NoV GII was detected in samples of strawberries and seaweed processed by both methods. In conclusion, the new direct lysis method showed an overall better performance compared to the modified ISO 15216 standard and should be validated for implementation in analysis of viruses in foods of plant origin.

Fingerprinting of human noroviruses co-infections in a possible foodborne outbreak by metagenomics.

Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) are the primary non-bacterial pathogens causing acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Here we reported a co-infection of HuNoVs with different genotypes during an outbreak of gastroenteritis in travelers. The aim was to trace the source and transmission patterns of the infections using next-generation sequencing (NGS). An investigation was conducted on a cross-border travel group who came back to China from Thailand for symptoms of gastroenteritis. Anal swabs were collected from 23 people and samples were analyzed using RT-qPCR. A total of 11 samples tested positive for HuNoVs. All samples tested negative for bacterial pathogens in the surveillance list. Positive samples for HuNoVs were further analyzed using NGS. Seven out of 11 positive samples were sequenced and 16 viral genome sequences for 10 different strains of HuNoVs were obtained. We demonstrated that the outbreak was associated with co-infection of multiple genotypes of HuNoVs and the source of infections was probably contaminated water or food. Besides, four different HuNoVs genotypes (GI.5[P12], GIX.1[GII·P15], GI.7[P7] and GII.8[P8]) were identified in one patient. Co-infection with both genogroup GI and GII, and co-infection with two different P types ([P10] and [P13]) of genotype GI.3 were identified in different patients. Findings from this study show that individuals can be simultaneously infected with multiple strains of HuNoVs and NGS can help investigating these issues. Further, this study shows that food and water are potential vehicles for transmission of multiple foodborne viruses.

Virological analyses in collective catering outbreaks in France between 2012 and 2017.

Enteric viruses cause the majority of foodborne illnesses and common symptoms of many foodborne illnesses include vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever. Among the enteric viruses, human Norovirus (NoV) and hepatitis virus (HAV and HEV) are the main viruses suspected to cause foodborne outbreaks and represent a serious public health. The study presents survey tools of viruses in a wide variety of foodstuffs and results obtained during 56 foodborne outbreaks investigation in France between 2012 and 2017. 246 suspected foods were examined for the presence of four human enteric viruses (NoV GI and NoV GII, HAV or HEV) either using methods described in the EN ISO 15216-1 or in house methods. All viral analysis of food samples were performed with the implementation of process control and an external amplification controls. Eighteen of 56 foodborne outbreaks investigated included at least one positive food sample (16/18 NoV, 1/18 HAV and 1/18 HEV). The genomic levels of four viruses detected ranged from < 102 to 107 genome copies per g or per L. This study showed the interest to develop methods for the extraction of viruses in different foodstuffs to increase the possibility to identify the association between viral illness and food consumption.

Estimating deaths from foodborne disease in the UK for 11 key pathogens.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the number of deaths from foodborne disease in the UK from 11 key pathogens. DESIGN: Four different models were developed using data from a range of sources. These included enhanced surveillance, outbreaks, death certificates and hospital episode statistics data. For each model, median estimates were produced with 95% credible intervals (CrI). The results from the different models were compared. RESULTS: The estimates for foodborne deaths for each pathogen from the different models were consistent, with CrIs largely overlapping. Based on the preferred model for each pathogen, foodborne norovirus is estimated to cause 56 deaths per year (95% CrI 32 to 92), foodborne Salmonella 33 deaths (95% CrI 7 to 159), foodborne Listeria monocytogenes 26 deaths (95% CrI 24 to 28), foodborne Clostridium perfringens 25 deaths (95% CrI 1 to 163) and foodborne Campylobacter 21 deaths (95% CrI 8 to 47). The considerable overlap in the CrIs means it is not possible to make any firm conclusions on ranking. Most of these deaths occur in those aged over 75 years. Foodborne deaths from Shigella, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, adenovirus, astrovirus and rotavirus are all rare. CONCLUSIONS: We estimate that there are 180 deaths per year in the UK (95% CrI 113 to 359) caused by foodborne disease based on these 11 pathogens. While this is a small fraction of the estimated 2.4 million cases of foodborne illness per year it still illustrates the potential severity of these illnesses demonstrating the importance in continuing efforts to reduce these infections.

Survival of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus in Goat Cheese and Milk.

Survival of tick-borne encephalitis virus was studied from pasteurized and unpasteurized goat milk and from salted/unsalted and spiced/unspiced cheese made from goat milk inoculated with low and high litres of infective virus. Both soft (63 °C, 30 min) and fast (72 °C, 15 s) pasteurization conditions destroyed viable virus particles. A small amount of infective virus could be detected only for 5‒10 days from milk, and from unsalted cheese. From milk inoculated with a higher amount of virus, infectious viral particles were detectable for 20‒25 days and from unsalted cheese samples for 10‒15 days, independently of the use of spices. Pasteurization and salt treatment made goat milk and cheese safely consumable. These two methods must be used when making any human food from goat milk to avoid milk-borne human TBEV infections.

Describing the Epidemiology of Foodborne Outbreaks in New South Wales from 2000 to 2017.

Foodborne disease causes an estimated 4.1 million cases of illness in Australia each year and is responsible for causing many significant common source outbreaks. We analyzed 18 years of foodborne outbreak data collected in New South Wales (NSW), and classified the likely pathogen type responsible for outbreaks of unknown etiology, to track broad trends over time. A total of 869 outbreaks were reported in NSW from 2000 to 2017. The majority (53%) of outbreaks did not have a pathogen identified and underwent pathogen type categorization based on the epidemiology of the outbreak. The proportion of outbreaks due to toxin producing bacteria decreased over time, whereas the proportion of outbreaks due to other bacterial pathogens increased. The proportion of outbreaks due to viral gastroenteritis pathogens had no overall changing trend over time. Bacterial outbreaks had significantly more identified cases and had more hospitalizations than other pathogen type causes. Other features associated with high case numbers, hospitalizations, and deaths in foodborne outbreaks included being due to food contaminated in primary production, involving consumption of raw products, and having evidence of poor sanitation in the food preparation areas. Eggs were the most commonly determined pathogen food source, occurring in 12% of outbreaks; however, most outbreak investigations (77%) did not have a pathogen food source identified. This analysis demonstrates a changing landscape of foodborne outbreaks over time. Increases in outbreaks due to bacterial and viral pathogens coincide with increases in sporadic notifications of the same pathogens, whereas decreases in toxin caused outbreaks followed the introduction of mandatory food safety training in retail food businesses. Recognizing issues in food production and implementing improvements that reduce the number of pathogens in food will be key to reducing the incidence of foodborne outbreaks.